Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council, 5, 1973

Abstract: Summary. Introduction. Until recently, equal interval, seven tone scales were known to ethnomusicologists only in two major areas: South-east Asia and Black Africa. However, not long ago this scale was reported in Mexico amongst the Tepehua Indians. Our aim here is to show its existence in yet a fourth area, Melanesia, which until now was not thought to have this scale. The article offers the initial findings from a continuing study into the scales of more than 300 instruments belonging to about 40 panpipe ensembles which we have recorded in different societies of Malaita, the most densely populated of the British Solomon Islands. In this initial report we have chosen only 28 instruments belonging to four panpipe ensembles of the 'Are'are people: 'au tahana, 'au keto, 'au taka'iori and 'au paina. 1. Recording and measurement procedure. The instruments used here for the scale analysis are the ones which appear in the recorded pieces from the two discs Melanesian Panpipes, 'Are'are Vol. 1 and Vol. 2. The scales of each instrument was played in ascending direction by a musician, each note being blown six times, giving a total duration of about 5 seconds. A Stroboconn was used in the measurements. The degree of error in the readings of the pitches may be considered to be +- 3 Cents in the middle two octaves (C$_{4}$ - B$_{5}$) and +- 5 Cents or the very low and very high registers. To ascertain whether there was a difference between the pitches when played in the scale order and when played in a performance, we measured the pitches of two pieces of music played with the three big instruments of the 'au keto ensemble. These measurements were made from recordings of three part polyphony in which the three musicians, each in turn, played near the microphone. Each measurement was taken twice, and the comparisons showed that the difference between ensembles and the played scales was minimal, in the order of +- 5 Cents (cf. Table VIII). 2. 'Au tahana ensemble. This consists of four instruments of two different sizes. The musicians play a two-part polyphony, each part doubled at the octave. Tabe I: Pitch measurement and interval sizes (each horizontal line represents one instrument under which are the Stroboconn pitch measurements; figures in italics above each line show the interval in Cents); Table II: Second interval discrepancies; Table III: Second interval discrepancies arranged in decreasing value; Table IV: Unison discrepancies; Table V: Octave discrepancies; Table VI: Pitch discrepancies between the four instruments. 3. 'Au keto ensemble. This ensemble consists of six instruments of different sizes. The musicians play a three-part polyphony, each part doubled at the octave. Table VII: Pitch measurements and interval sizes; Table VIII: Comparative interval measurements; Table IX: Third interval discrepancies; Table X: Second interval measurements and discrepancies (in brackets); Table XI: Octave discrepancies. 4. 'Au taka'iori ensemble. This ensemble consists of ten instruments of different sizes. The musicians play a four-part polyphony, two parts being tripled at the octave, and two being doubled at the octave; Table XII: Pitch measurements and interval sizes; Table XIII: Third interval discrepancies; Table XIV: Octave discrepancies. 5. 'Au paina ensemble. This consists of eight instruments of four different sizes. The musicians play a two-part polyphony, both voices being quadrupled at the octave. Table XV: Pitch measurements and interval sizes; Table XVI: Unison discrepancies; Table XVII: Octave discrepancies. 6. Vernacular terminology. The 'Are'are people have no names for the different tubes of the panpipes used for playing in concert, nor for the pitches obtained by blowing these tubes. However, they have names for the low (pau or kou) and high (kikiri) registers of an instrument. Two intervals have names: the second (rapi 'au) and the octave (suri 'au). Two other terms indicate the direction -- ascending or descending -- of an interval or melodic fragment; the term "to ascend" (hiuru) indicates to go towards a lower pitch, whilst "to descend" (hihu'a) indicates to go towards a higher pitch. 7. The four types of panpipe ensembles can be distinquished by several features (cf. Table XVIII): (1) the number of instruments; (2) the number of tubes in each instrument; (3) the scales with conjunct degrees (seconds), with disjunct degrees (thirds), and with both; (4) the doubling, tripling, or quadrupling at the octave; (5) the range of each instrument and of the ensemble. Three of the four ensembles described above show clearly the presence of an equiheptaphonic scale: the 'au tahana (conjunct degrees), the 'au keto and 'au taka'iori (disjunct degrees). The instruments from the 'au tahana ensemble studied here conform most closely to the theoretical scale (half the intervals are within 5 Cents, whilst the only intervals [6 of the 52] which deviate more than 20 Cents are found in the high register of the small instruments). The 'au tahana ensemble is considered by the 'Are'are as being the oldest and most important panpipe ensemble, whereas the others are considered to be derived. After an examination of both the terminology and the musical practice of the 'Are'are (there is no concept of modes; the same piece can start on different pitches), we feel that the differences in interval sizes shown in the analysis represent non-pertinent discrepancies in the equiheptatonic scale. The 'au paina is the only panpipe ensemble in which the 'Are'are distinguish between different intervals: the second and the third. However, the scale analysis has shown that there is a difference in the sizes of the seconds; this is contradictory in view of both the oral tradition which claims that the 'au paina was made from the 'au tahana model, and also of information we received which suggests that it would be made today in the same way. During our next field trip we will endeavour to see how the instrument maker modifies the tuning for the 'au paina from the 'au tahana model. The unison discrepancies between instruments of the same name and size (in the 'au tahana and 'au paina ensembles), unlike some Mandinka xylophones and the Balinese gamelan, do not show systematic characteristics. Contrary to the Balinese gamelan the 'Are'are panpipe ensembles tend to have "stretched" octaves in the low registers and "compressed" octaves in the high registers.

Abstract: Summary. Introduction. Until recently, equal interval, seven tone scales were known to ethnomusicologists only in two major areas: South-east Asia and Black Africa. However, not long ago this scale was reported in Mexico amongst the Tepehua Indians. Our aim here is to show its existence in yet a fourth area, Melanesia, which until now was not thought to have this scale. The article offers the initial findings from a continuing study into the scales of more than 300 instruments belonging to about 40 panpipe ensembles which we have recorded in different societies of Malaita, the most densely populated of the British Solomon Islands. In this initial report we have chosen only 28 instruments belonging to four panpipe ensembles of the 'Are'are people: 'au tahana, 'au keto, 'au taka'iori and 'au paina. 1. Recording and measurement procedure. The instruments used here for the scale analysis are the ones which appear in the recorded pieces from the two discs Melanesian Panpipes, 'Are'are Vol. 1 and Vol. 2. The scales of each instrument was played in ascending direction by a musician, each note being blown six times, giving a total duration of about 5 seconds. A Stroboconn was used in the measurements. The degree of error in the readings of the pitches may be considered to be ± 3 Cents in the middle two octaves (C<latex>$_{4}$</latex> - B<latex>$_{5}$</latex>) and ± 5 Cents or the very low and very high registers. To ascertain whether there was a difference between the pitches when played in the scale order and when played in a performance, we measured the pitches of two pieces of music played with the three big instruments of the 'au keto ensemble. These measurements were made from recordings of three part polyphony in which the three musicians, each in turn, played near the microphone. Each measurement was taken twice, and the comparisons showed that the difference between ensembles and the played scales was minimal, in the order of ± 5 Cents (cf. Table VIII). 2. 'Au tahana ensemble. This consists of four instruments of two different sizes. The musicians play a two-part polyphony, each part doubled at the octave. Tabe I: Pitch measurement and interval sizes (each horizontal line represents one instrument under which are the Stroboconn pitch measurements; figures in italics above each line show the interval in Cents); Table II: Second interval discrepancies; Table III: Second interval discrepancies arranged in decreasing value; Table IV: Unison discrepancies; Table V: Octave discrepancies; Table VI: Pitch discrepancies between the four instruments. 3. 'Au keto ensemble. This ensemble consists of six instruments of different sizes. The musicians play a three-part polyphony, each part doubled at the octave. Table VII: Pitch measurements and interval sizes; Table VIII: Comparative interval measurements; Table IX: Third interval discrepancies; Table X: Second interval measurements and discrepancies (in brackets); Table XI: Octave discrepancies. 4. 'Au taka'iori ensemble. This ensemble consists of ten instruments of different sizes. The musicians play a four-part polyphony, two parts being tripled at the octave, and two being doubled at the octave; Table XII: Pitch measurements and interval sizes; Table XIII: Third interval discrepancies; Table XIV: Octave discrepancies. 5. 'Au paina ensemble. This consists of eight instruments of four different sizes. The musicians play a two-part polyphony, both voices being quadrupled at the octave. Table XV: Pitch measurements and interval sizes; Table XVI: Unison discrepancies; Table XVII: Octave discrepancies. 6. Vernacular terminology. The 'Are'are people have no names for the different tubes of the panpipes used for playing in concert, nor for the pitches obtained by blowing these tubes. However, they have names for the low (pau or kou) and high (kikiri) registers of an instrument. Two intervals have names: the second (rapi 'au) and the octave (suri 'au). Two other terms indicate the direction -- ascending or descending -- of an interval or melodic fragment; the term "to ascend" (hiuru) indicates to go towards a lower pitch, whilst "to descend" (hihu'a) indicates to go towards a higher pitch. 7. The four types of panpipe ensembles can be distinquished by several features (cf. Table XVIII): (1) the number of instruments; (2) the number of tubes in each instrument; (3) the scales with conjunct degrees (seconds), with disjunct degrees (thirds), and with both; (4) the doubling, tripling, or quadrupling at the octave; (5) the range of each instrument and of the ensemble. Three of the four ensembles described above show clearly the presence of an equiheptaphonic scale: the 'au tahana (conjunct degrees), the 'au keto and 'au taka'iori (disjunct degrees). The instruments from the 'au tahana ensemble studied here conform most closely to the theoretical scale (half the intervals are within 5 Cents, whilst the only intervals [6 of the 52] which deviate more than 20 Cents are found in the high register of the small instruments). The 'au tahana ensemble is considered by the 'Are'are as being the oldest and most important panpipe ensemble, whereas the others are considered to be derived. After an examination of both the terminology and the musical practice of the 'Are'are (there is no concept of modes; the same piece can start on different pitches), we feel that the differences in interval sizes shown in the analysis represent non-pertinent discrepancies in the equiheptatonic scale. The 'au paina is the only panpipe ensemble in which the 'Are'are distinguish between different intervals: the second and the third. However, the scale analysis has shown that there is a difference in the sizes of the seconds; this is contradictory in view of both the oral tradition which claims that the 'au paina was made from the 'au tahana model, and also of information we received which suggests that it would be made today in the same way. During our next field trip we will endeavour to see how the instrument maker modifies the tuning for the 'au paina from the 'au tahana model. The unison discrepancies between instruments of the same name and size (in the 'au tahana and 'au paina ensembles), unlike some Mandinka xylophones and the Balinese gamelan, do not show systematic characteristics. Contrary to the Balinese gamelan the 'Are'are panpipe ensembles tend to have "stretched" octaves in the low registers and "compressed" octaves in the high registers.

Abstract: Summary. Folk dance must be considered as a non-verbal language, an essential part of total human communication; between man and man, between man and his environment, and between man and the supernatural. Dance, seen in this context, contains not only rhythmical-esthetic information, but cultural as well. Contextual research has shown that dance functions as an ambiguous sign: that dance does not exist as an autonomous language but only as a complex semiotic object which has different degrees of meaning in a variety of contexts; and that the functional transformation imposed by a changing context determines equivalent structural modifications.

Donal O'Sullivan (1893-1973), 179-182

Maud Karpeles, Aloys Fleischmann

Ladislav Leng (1930-1973), 182-184

Barbara Krader

Studies and Monographs

----------------, 185-186

Judeo-Spanish Traditional Ballads from Jerusalem: An Ethnomusicological Study

Israel J. Katz

Review Author[s]: Alfred Sendrey

----------------, 186-187

Kirgizskie instrumental'nye p'esy i napevy

A. V. Zataevich, V. S. Vinogradov

Review Author[s]: Mark Slobin

----------------, 187-189

Ethiopian Music: An Introduction

Michael Powne

Review Author[s]: Arthur A. Moorefield

----------------, 189-190

Chopi Musicians; Their Music, Poetry and Instruments

Hugh Tracey

Review Author[s]: Darius L. Thieme

----------------, 191-192

Folk Songs of Japan

Donald P. Berger

Review Author[s]: Elizabeth May

----------------, 192

Latviesu muzikas folkloras materiali

Emilis Melngailis

Review Author[s]: Andrejs Jansons

----------------, 193-195

How Musical Is Man?

John Blacking

Review Author[s]: Elizabeth May

----------------, 195-196

An Introduction to English Folk Song

Maud Karpeles

Review Author[s]: Norman Cazden

----------------, 196-197

Heaven on Horseback: Revivalist Songs and Verse in the Cowboy Idiom

Austin Fife, Alta Fife

Review Author[s]: Norman Cazden

Encyclopaedias -- Journals

----------------, 198-205

Encyclopaedia Judaica

Geoffrey Wigoder

Review Author[s]: Israel J. Katz

----------------, 205-209

Ethnomusicology, Vol. XV, Nos. 1, 2 & 3; Vol. XVI, Nos. 1, 2 & 3; Vol. XVII, Nos. 1 & 2

Israel J. Katz, Norma McLeod

Review Author[s]: Jeremy Montagu

----------------, 209-211

Studia instrumentorum musicae populairis, Vol. I (1969) and Vol. II (1972)

Erich Stockmann, Ernst Emsheimer

Review Author[s]: Jeremy Montagu

Bibliography - Discography

----------------, 211

The International Folk Directory of Ethnic Music and Related Traditions

Beryl Kennedy, Peter Kennedy

Review Author[s]: Frank J. Gillis

----------------, 212-213

Neue Musik in Afrika, Asien und Ozenien: Diskographie und historiisch-stilistischer Uberblick

Neue Musik in Afrika, Asien und Ozenien: Diskographie und historiisch-stilistischer Überblick

Wolfgang Laade

Review Author[s]: Elise P. Barnett

Recordings

----------------, 213-214

Musique Malinke / [Mandinka Music]

Musique Malinké / [Mandinka Music]

Gilbert Rouget

Review Author[s]: Monique Brandily

----------------, 214-215

Musique d'Afrique occidentale / [Music from West Africa]

Gilbert Rouget

Review Author[s]: Monique Brandily

----------------, 215

Musique Toma -- Guinee / [Music of the Toma -- Guinea]

Musique Toma -- Guinée / [Music of the Toma -- Guinea]

Pierre D. Gaisseau, Jean Fichter, Tony Saulnier

Review Author[s]: Monique Brandily

----------------, 215

Musique Dayak / [Music of the Dayak]. Borneo (Kalimantan)

Musique Dayak / [Music of the Dayak]. Bornéo (Kalimantan)

Pierre Ivanoff

Review Author[s]: Monique Brandily

----------------, 215-216

Polynesian Traditional Music of Ontong Java (Solomon Islands) / [Musique polynesienne traditionnelle d'Ontong Java (Iles Salomon)]

Polynesian Traditional Music of Ontong Java (Solomon Islands) / [Musique polynésienne traditionnelle d'Ontong Java (Iles Salomon)]

Hugo Zemp

Review Author[s]: Jane Mink Rossen

----------------, 216-217

Musique melanesienne 'Are 'are. vol. 3 Malaita, Iles Salomon

Musique mélanésienne 'Are 'are. vol. 3 Malaita, Iles Salomon

Hugo Zemp

Review Author[s]: Jane Mink Rossen

----------------, 217

Ankole, West-Uganda: Volksmuziek: Musique populaire / Volkmusik / Folk music

Review Author[s]: Monique Brandily

----------------, 218

Bafia -- Muziek, Kameroen

Benoit Quersin

Review Author[s]: Monique Brandily

----------------, 218-219

Armenie, chants liturgiques du Moyen-age

Arménie, chants liturgiques du Moyen-âge

Robert Ataian

Armenie, musique instrumentale

Arménie, musique instrumentale

Robert Ataian

Review Author[s]: Haluk Tarcan, Halûk Tarcan

----------------, 219

Turquie: chants sacres d'Anatolie par Ashik Feyzullah Tchinar

Turquie: chants sacrés d'Anatolie par Ashik Feyzullah Tchinar

Review Author[s]: Haluk Tarcan, Halûk Tarcan

----------------, 219-220

Musique populaire traditionnelle d'Iraq

Vaclav Kubica

Review Author[s]: Haluk Tarcan, Halûk Tarcan

----------------, 220

Inde du Nord par Pandit Ram Narayan. Sarangi

Review Author[s]: Mireille Helffer

----------------, 221

Gambie: Mandinka Kora par Jali Nyama Suso

Review Author[s]: Monique Brandily

----------------, 221

Musique du Viet-Nam, tradition du Sud par Nguyen Vinh Bao et Tran van Khe

Musique du Viêt-Nam, tradition du Sud par Nguyên Vinh Bao et Trân van Khê

Review Author[s]: Tran Quang Hai, Trân Quang Hái

----------------, 222

Unesco Collection. Musical Sources. Religious Psalmody IV -- I. Jewish Music

Amnon Shiloah

Review Author[s]: Avner Bahat

----------------, 222-223

[Ivory Coast: Baule Vocal Music] / Cote d'Ivoire: Musique vocale Baoule / Costa d'Avorio: Musica vocale bauli

[Ivory Coast: Baule Vocal Music] / Côte d'Ivoire: Musique vocale Baoulé / Costa d'Avorio: Musica vocale bauli

Hugo Zemp

Review Author[s]: Rene Menard, René Ménard

----------------, 223-224

Chants Maronites, chants de Noel

Chants Maronites, chants de Noël

Review Author[s]: Rene Menard, René Ménard

----------------, 224-225

Music from South New Guinea

Wolfgang Laade

Review Author[s]: Hugo Zemp

----------------, 225-226

Bali, Musique sacree

Bali, Musique sacrée

Le Tibet, rituel boudhique

L'Inde, musique religieuse; Le Bhakti Yoga

L'Inde, musique réligieuse; Le Bhakti Yoga

Iran, le ney

Review Author[s]: Mireille Helffer

----------------, 226

Music from Bangladesh

Deben Bhattacharya

Review Author[s]: Mireille Helffer

----------------, 226-227

Constantin Brailoiou: Melodii populare Romanesti, cintece pe versuri Franceze

Constantin Brǎiloiou: Melodii populare Românesti, cîntece pe versuri Franceze

Constantin Brailoiou, Constantin Brǎiloiou

Review Author[s]: Haluk Tarcan, Halûk Tarcan

----------------, 227

Tieng Hat song Huong / Le chant de la riviere des parfums

Tiêńg Hát sông Hủong / Le chant de la rivière des parfums

Tran Quang Hai, Trân Quang Hai, Truong Tang, Trủỏng Tǎng

Review Author[s]: Andre-Marie Despringre, André-Marie Despringre

----------------, 227-228

The Folk Songs of Britain: Vol. 4. The Child Ballads 1

The Folk Songs of Britain: Vol. 5 The Child Ballads 2

Review Author[s]: Tran Quang Hai, Trân Quang Hải

----------------, 228

Folk Music of Albania

A. L. Lloyd

Review Author[s]: Andre-Marie Despringre, André-Marie Despringre

----------------, 229

Willie Clancy, the Minstrel from Clare

Bill Leader

Review Author[s]: Marie-Jeanne Raveneau

----------------, 229

Princess of the Thistle. Lizzie Higgins. Scots Songs and Ballads

Bill Leader

Review Author[s]: Marie-Jeanne Raveneau

----------------, 229-230

John Burgess. King of Highland Pipers. Dance Tunes, Marches, Airs and Pibrock Played on the Highland Bagpipe

Review Author[s]: Marie-Jeanne Raveneau

----------------, 230

Billy Pigg the Border Minstrel

Forster Charlton

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 230-231

North Carolina Boys

Janet Kerr

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 231

Charlie Wills

Bill Leader

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 231-232

Unto Brigg Fair

Joseph Taylor, Percy Grainger

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner, Tran Quant Hai, Trân Quant Hải

----------------, 232

Folk Ballads from Donegal and Derry

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 232

Seamus Ennis

Bill Leader

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 232

Martin Byrnes

Bill Leader

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 233

Seamus Tansey with Eddie Corcoran

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 233

Jack Elliott of Birtley. The Songs and Stories of a Durham Miner

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner

----------------, 233

Blue Ridge Mountain Field Trip

Janet Kerr

Review Author[s]: Brigitte Werner, Tran Quang Hai, Trân Quang Hải